Energies, Vol. 19, Pages 98: From Automotive to Power Grids: How Much PV Capacity Can Be Unlocked from Retired Electric Vehicle Batteries?
Energies doi: 10.3390/en19010098
Authors:
Evangelos E. Pompodakis
Emmanouel S. Karapidakis
The rapid growth of electric vehicles (EVs) is expected to create a substantial stream of retired automotive batteries over the coming decades, offering an opportunity for low-cost stationary storage deployment. This paper quantifies how much additional photovoltaic (PV) capacity can be unlocked in Greece through the systematic use of second-life EV batteries under the new self-consumption and zero feed-in regulatory framework. First, a deterministic cohort model is developed to estimate the annual potential of second-life batteries, considering parameters like EV sales, first-life duration, repurposing eligibility, and second-life operational lifetime. The results indicate that Greece could accumulate from 3.5 GWh to 12.1 GWh of second-life batteries until 2050, depending on future EV growth rates. Next, to link battery capacity with PV unlocked potential, an hourly time-series simulation is implemented under a zero feed-in scheme, i.e., without exporting energy to the grid, indicating that each kilowatt-hour of second-life battery can unlock 0.33 kW of PVs in residential zero feed-in systems. On this basis, second-life batteries could unlock from 1.1 GW to 3.9 GW of additional PV capacity that would otherwise be infeasible. For comparison, the peak load of Greece is about 10 GW. Importantly, unlike large-scale grid-connected PV plants—where transmission system operators increasingly impose curtailments—zero feed-in installations can operate seamlessly without creating additional operational stress for the grid.